Motivation across Lifespan
In this blog, we take a look at lifespan motivators. Each section outlines a period in an individual's life where their motivation is more direct based on general interests for individuals of that age group. We move through life’s motivators chronologically and dive into intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for individuals throughout their lives.
Infants and toddlers depend on and are motivated by their mothers or main caregivers
The baseline of infants and small children’s motivation begins with their play, sharing, and helping others. By looking at social interactions among infants and small children we observe that everyday interactions play a role in infants’ motivation. Obvious variables to consider are their age and abilities to engage in their motivation. It has been concluded that infants and toddlers are more likely to help and share with familiar caregivers than with strangers.
The article mentions “…encouraging, praising, and modeling, play a foundational role in infants’ motivations to engage in prosocial behaviors” (Reschke et al., 2022, pp 526). By the age of 2 young children begin selective decision making within their social behaviors. By age 3 children are more likely to share with children they like and are more likely to share with prosocial individuals than with antisocial peers. These children become more selective with their associations due to the target’s history of prosocial and antisocial actions, familiarity, and intentions.
These behaviors begin intrinsic in nature but gradually develop into extrinsic. For example, when infants and young children begin their social exploration, it is for the purpose of developing social connections, and those connections bring pleasure to the child. They are learning about the world around them and develop secure attachments to their caregivers.
Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation among elementary school age students
Next, we take a look at intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in children near elementary school age. Intrinsic motivation at this age is determined by internal personal enjoyments, and pleasures. Extrinsic motivation is guided by reinforcement contingencies.
Children enter school with large amounts of intrinsic motivation but as they age, that motivation may change because of practices used by their educators. Reward systems may increase or decrease an elementary student’s motivation. There are limitations to positive effects of extrinsic reinforcements. Targeting cognitive behavior modifications may be used to change behaviors by encouraging students to take more responsibility for their own learning. The behaviors in students' motivation is affected by their cognition and not the consequences they receive (Stipek, 1996). There is a risk with this method, as some students may not perform well with this change, but those who take advantage of this method will begin setting goals, display metacognitive strategies, and reward themselves. The positive results from this method will carry their motivation throughout their life.
Extrinsic & intrinsic motivation for adolescents
Students who don’t make adjustments to self-regulation in terms of learning have a cynical perspective, based on feedback from their prior learning experiences. These students find reasons to postpone their academic goals to achieve impulsive desires immediately. We observe these learning behaviors that are influenced by their motivators. Self-efficacy is what drives an individual’s thoughts and actions (Bandura, 1993). There are three categories to which are motivators to students in the middle and high school years:
- Values/goals
- Comparing performance with the performance of others and weighing judgement
- Taking up concern with personal learning and achievements
- Expectations
- Affective components
We identify four stages within extrinsic motivation, (Ryan & Deci, 2000). External regulation is the behavior controlled by circumstances. Introjected regulation is the behavior which is motivated by pressures an individual cannot specifically identify. Identified regulation is when an individual behaves in a manner that they know will bring them closer to a personal goal and therefore is extrinsically motived because it is a calculated act. Integrated regulation is a form of self-determination and is also extrinsic motivation. Integrated regulation is when an individual conducts themselves based on their personal values, rules, and goals.
When studying within these age groups, students are extrinsically motivated but when this motivation is combined with integrated regulation the quality of learning may be as well as intrinsically motivated learning. This is even more successful when students keep their own futures in mind.
Motivation in young adulthood in regard to entering the workforce and finding self-identity.
Early adulthood is a time of exploring identity and with that, we explore a variety of behavior and our individual moral motives. By establishing moral motivates we are able to better understand the sense of self, which beings in adolescence and continues to be modified throughout adulthood. This period of time is extrinsically driven with intrinsic results.
We reflect our moral identity with moral behavior. Some motivators are self-oriented, but most moral motivators are focused on the welfare of others, such as the community or our family. These groups aid in individual development of moral behaviors and decision-making. One of the influences on moral decision making is the fear of negative evaluation from others. Young adults place a weight upon their own shoulders to act morally because they want to be seen as a good person, and they don’t want to let down those they care about. While it is not commonly thought that young adults put the care of others before their own affairs, this emerging period of life is not a time of selfishness, but a time of self-focus while they are paving their way into society.
Working through adulthood and what drives career motivation
Middle aged adults work for a variety of reasons. Working motivation is most emphasized by three needs; need for power, need for affiliation, and need for achievement. This period of life is most defined by intrinsic motivators, as intrinsic motivation to gain personal satisfaction due to achievements or success. These motivators come from tangible rewards such as bonuses and promotions which are different from extrinsic motivation by way of not being socially rewarding but by being intrinsically rewarding. At this stage of life, individuals are also very driven by their personal value system, (Barbuto, Jr. et al., 2004). A similar motive to personal value system is self-actualization, which is removing self-interest for a cause. During this period of life, the lines between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators become blurred or shifted slightly. Perhaps this is due to individuals taking all they’ve learned thus far and applying it to becoming the best versions of themselves, and that is the true motivator.
What happens after retirement? Taking a look at what motivators are for senior adults
At this stage in life, older individuals, or rather senior adults, need to be prepared. A retirement plan is needed as well as preparation for the rest of their lives, including saving. Retirees anticipate their retirement from entry into the workforce. Retirement intentions have changed due to varying factors. The reasons why people retire influence how they actually execute their retirement which is an antecedent-outcome gap. An interesting finding is that a large portion of participants, about 40%, in a study reported that they have no plans to retire or do not plan to retire altogether, (Kerry, 2018).
Looking at the five- factor personality constructs related to retirement revealed the following information:
| Neuroticism: | Negatively related to well-being in retirement |
| Extroversion: | Positively related to well-being in retirement |
| Openness: | Positively related to well-being in retirement |
| Agreeableness: | Positively related to well-being in retirement |
| Conscientious: | Positively related to well-being in retirement |
Retirement planning has a direct correlation with employer offerings and employee planning. Looking into how individuals feel about money and saving it, there are some arguments of goal-based motives or fear-based motives. Goal-based motives are when an individual has a vision or goal for their retirement. Fear-based motives are when an individual is worried about their retirement years and decides to be well prepared for the uncertainty of that period of life. Both motives lead individuals that are going into retirement then into saving. “The increasing overlap of work and retirement contexts is concomitant with continuously aged and mobile workforces, and both compels precise application of lifespan motivation theories”, (Kerry, 2018, pp 14).
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